CLASS: XII (REVISION NOTES)
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: PROBLEMS AND STARTIGIES
India was one of the first countries in the world to use the
“family planning” programme, which began in 1951.
In a culture, reproductive health is an important component
of overall health.
Under the common moniker ‘Reproductive and child health
care (RCH) programme,’ improved programmers
encompassing a broader range of reproduction-related issues
are presently in operation.
Young people’s health and education, as well as marriage and
childbearing at more mature phases of life, are all crucial
factors in a society’s reproductive health.
Government Measures to create awareness among
people about reproduction related aspects:
The
government is doing this with the help of:
• Audio-visuals and print media.
• Even family members and close relatives are becoming
aware.
• Sex education is implemented in schools to raise
awareness.
• Adequate education regarding reproductive organs,
puberty and associated changes, safe and sanitary sexual
behaviors, sexually transmitted illnesses, AIDS is also
being taught in schools.
Amniocentesis: It is a method that uses amniotic fluid to
detect chromosomal abnormalities in growing embryos.
It is also misapplied to determine foetal sex based on the
chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid around the
growing embryo.
Population explosion and Birth Control
People’s improved quality of life, enhanced health care, and
better living conditions had an exponential influence on
population growth.
The fundamental cause of population explosion is:
o Rapid drop in death rates,
o MMR (maternal mortality rate)
o IMR (infant mortality rate)
o An increase in the population of reproductive age.
Steps to combat population growth are:
o Using numerous ways of contraception.
o Educating individuals about the disadvantages of having a
big family.
o Increasing both female and male marriageable ages.
o Providing an incentive to parents with one or two
children.
An ideal way of controlling the population is the use of
contraceptives.
Contraceptives: these come in form of pills and many other
forms that prevent the fusion of egg and the sperm and hence
the pregnancy.
An ideal contraceptive should have following features:
✓ User friendly
✓ Easily available
✓ Effective
✓ Reversible
✓ No side effects
✓ No way interferes with sexual desire and sexual act.
Contraceptives methods:
(i) Natural/Traditional Method: these avoids the
meeting of sperm and ovum by chance and includes the
following:
o Periodic abstinence: Couples avoid coitus from day
10 to day 17 of their menstrual cycle since the odds. of fertilisation are relatively high during this period,
which is known as the fertile period.
o Coitus interruptus: To avoid fertilisation, the male
partner withdraws the penis from the vagina
immediately before ejaculation.
o Lactational Amenorrhea: Because of the lack of
menstruation following parturition, as well as the
strong milk feeding and lack of ovulation during this
period, the odds of fertilisation are minimal.
(ii) Barrier method: A barrier prevents ovum and sperm
from physically meeting. This includes the following:
o Condom: ‘Nirodh’ is a popular brand of condom in
males.
o Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults: these are
rubber barrier put into the female reproductive tract
during coitus. Spermicidal lotions, jellies, and foams
are commonly used in conjunction with these
barriers to improve their contraceptive
effectiveness.
Barrier approaches provide the following advantages:
✓ They can be discarded easily.
✓ They are self-insertable.
✓ They may be reused
✓ Prevents conception by blocking entry of sperm
through cervix.
(iii) IUD’s: put vaginally into the
uterus of a female by a doctor
or a skilled nurse Nonmedicated IUDs (e.g.,
Lippes loop), copper
releasing IUDs (CuT, Cu7,
Multiload 375), and
hormone releasing IUDs
are all examples of IUCDs
(Progestasert, LNG-20).
IUDs promote sperm phagocytosis in the uterus, but
copper releasing IUDs decreases sperm motility and
reproductive capability. IUDs that release hormones
render the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the
cervix unfriendly to sperms. It is great for females who
desire to postpone pregnancy and have space between
two children.
A: Condoms B: IUDs (CuT) C: Implants D: Vasectomy E: Tubectomy
(iv) Oral pills: Females take progesterone or a
progesterone-estrogen combo in the form of pills. They
hinder or delay sperm entrance by inhibiting ovulation and implantation and altering the quality of cervical
mucus. Progesterone or a progesterone-estrogen
combination administered within 72 hours following
coitus has been demonstrated to be particularly
effective as an emergency contraceptive.
(v) Surgical Methods: it a terminal method of
contraception and can be done on both males and
females.
o Vasectomy: In males, a little portion of the vas deferens
is excised or tied up by a minor incision on the scrotum
to prevent sperm release.
o Tubectomy: is a medical procedure in which a little
portion of the fallopian tube is surgically removed.
These procedures are quite successful, but their
reversibility is extremely low.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP):
MTP (medical
termination of pregnancy) or induced abortion refers to the
voluntary termination of a pregnancy before full term.
It
contributes significantly to population reduction by
terminating unwanted pregnancies.
MTP was legalised in India in 1971, with various restrictions
to avoid its abuse, such as indiscriminate and unlawful female
foeticides.
MTP is used to avoid undesired pregnancy as a result of
unprotected intercourse or the failure of contraception used
during coitus or rapes.
When continuing the pregnancy might be detrimental to the
mother or baby.
During the first trimester, or up to 12 weeks of pregnancy,
MTPs are regarded reasonably safe. MTPs in the second
trimester are much risky
Sexually Transmitted Diseases:
Sexually transmitted
illness, venereal disease (VD), or reproductive tract infection
refers to diseases or infections spread by sexual contact
(RTI).
Common STI symptoms include itching and burning around your genital area. The good news is that most STI treatments can cure the infection, but not all types. You can get an STI again, even after treatment to cure it.
Gonorrhea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital
warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B, and AIDS are among
prevalent STDs
.
Hepatitis B and HIV can also be transferred by the sharing of
injection needles or surgical equipment with an infected
individual, blood transfusion, or from an infected mother to a
foetus.
- Bacteria, including chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis
- Viruses, including HIV/AIDS, herpes simplex virus, human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV).
- Parasites, such as trichomonas vaginalis, or insects such as crab lice or scabies mites.
With the exception of genital herpes, HIV and hepatitis-B
are totally curable if discovered and treated early.
STDs must be detected and treated as soon as possible,
otherwise they can lead to:
(i) pelvic inflammatory disorders (PID).
(ii) abortions, stillbirths, ectopic pregnancies,
Infertility
Infertile couples are those who are unable to reproduce
offspring despite unprotected sex. There might be several
explanations for this, including physical, congenital, illnesses,
medications, immunological, or psychological factors.
Infertile couples can be helped to bear children using specific
treatments known as Assisted reproductive technologies
(ART). Some of the methods include:
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF): The test tube baby programme
involves fertilisation outside the body followed by embryo
transfer.
• The ovum from the wife/donor and the sperms from the
husband/donor are collected and fertilized in a
laboratory setting.
• For further development, a zygote or early embryo (8
blastomeres) is transferred into the fallopian tube using
ZIFT (zygote infra fallopian transfer) and an embryo
with more than 8 blastomeres via IUT (intra uterine
transfer) into the uterus.
Gamete intra fallopian transfer (GIFT): Transfer of
gametes from a donor into the fallopian tube of another
female who does not produce an egg.
Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection: specialised laboratory
process for forming an embryo in which sperm is directly
inserted into the ovum.
Artificial insemination: Infertility cases in which the male
spouse is unable to generate healthy sperms are treated with
this treatment, in this method the donor sperm is
intentionally delivered into the female’s vagina or uterus by
IUI (intra uterine insemination).
Surrogacy is an adoption arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman agrees to childbirth on behalf of another person(s) who will become the child’s parent(s) after birth. People pursue surrogacy for a variety of reasons such as infertility, dangers or undesirable factors of pragnancy, or when pregnancy is a medical impossibility.